The first computer technology. Generations of modern computers

Now intensive development of the 5th generation computer is underway. Development of subsequent generations of computers is carried out on the basis of large integrated circuits with an increased degree of integration, the use of optoelectronic principles (lasers, holography).

7.1.1. Historical excursion

7.1.2. Computer generations

7.2. Computer architecture

7.3. Computer classification

7.1. History of development and generation of computers

7.1.1. Historical excursion

Modern man simply cannot imagine his daily life without a computer, and after all, just a few decades ago, mankind did not even imagine the possibilities that appeared with the advent of the computer. Today, we do not need to waste precious time, which is always lacking on useless mathematical calculations or other operations that the computer performs for us. For many centuries, mankind has striven to simplify counting, analysis, etc. Therefore, in order to understand what kind of wealth we have today, it is necessary to trace this difficult path from the beginning. The following stages are distinguished in the history of the development of computers.

1. Finger counting.The oldest calculating instrument, which nature itself placed at the disposal of man, was his own hand.

Numerals in many languages \u200b\u200bindicate that primitive man had mainly fingers as a counting tool. It is no coincidence that in Old Russian numbering, units are called "fingers", tens - "compositions", and all the rest, numbers - "compositions." The hand cannon is a synonym and the actual basis of the number "five" in many peoples. For example, the Malay “lima” means both “hand” and “five”.

Finger counting was also well known in Rome. According to the ancient Roman historian Pliny the Elder, a giant figure of the two-faced god Yavus was erected on the main Roman square, Forum. With the fingers of his right hand, he depicted the number 300, with the fingers of the left 55. Together, this was the number of days in a year in the Roman calendar.

The finger count has been preserved in some places to this day. The historian of mathematics L. Karpinskii in his book "History of Arithmetic" reports that at the world's largest grain exchange in Chicago, offers to requests, like prices, were announced by brokers on their fingers without a single word.

2. Tags and ropes with knots.Since ancient times, another type of instrumental counting has been used - with the help of wooden sticks with notches (tags). For the first time, mention of the method of writing numbers by applying notches is found on the bas-relief of the temple of Pharaoh SetiI (1350 BC) in Abydos. Here is depicted the god Thoth, marking with the help of notches on a palm branch the duration of the reign of the pharaoh.

In the Middle Ages, tags were used for accounting and tax collection. The tag was cut into two longitudinal parts, one remained with the peasant, the other with the tax collector. On the notches on both parts, the tax account was kept, which was checked by folding the parts of the tag. In England, for example, this method of recording debts existed until the end of XV2nd century.

Other peoples - Chinese, Persians, Indians, Peruvians - used belts or ropes with knots to represent numbers and count. The American Indians called the counting ropes cuiru, and in Peruvian cities, before the European invasion of South America, the city treasurer was called cuiru komouokuna, that is, the official of knots.

3. Abacus.The tags and ropes with knots could not satisfy the increasing need for means of calculation due to the development of trade. The development of a written account was hampered by two circumstances.

First, there was no suitable material for performing the calculations - clay and wax tablets were not suitable for this, parchment was invented only inV century BC e. (and it was too expensive), and paper appeared much later (in Europe - around the 11th century). Secondly, in the number systems of that time, it was difficult to perform all the necessary operations in writing. Try, for example, multiply CLVI onLXXIVusing the Roman numeral system! These circumstances can explain the appearance of a special calculating device, known in ancient times under the name of abacus.

The origin of the term "abacus" has not been established. Most historians derive it from a Semitic root; according to this interpretation, abacus means a tablet covered with a layer of dust. In its primitive form, the abacus really is such a tablet. Lines were drawn on it with a sharp stick and some objects, such as pebbles or sticks, were placed in the resulting columns according to the positional principle. The self-explanatory figure shows the sequence for performing addition 258 + 54 on an abacus. Subtraction was performed by removing pebbles, multiplication and division as repeated additions and subtractions, respectively.

According to Herodotus, the Egyptians used an abacus, and, unlike the Greeks, they moved the stones - not from left to right, but from right to left. It is clear from this that in the era of Herodotus, the abacus was already widespread in Greece and Egypt. Historians believe h

then the abacus was brought to Greece by the Phoenicians and became there a "traveling instrument" of Greek merchants. The values \u200b\u200bassigned to the pebbles in the different columns were usually correlated with the ratios of the different monetary units.

In ancient Rome, the abacus was calledcalculi orabaculi and was made of bronze, stone, ivory and colored glass. Wordcalculus means "pebble", "naked". From this word came the later Latincalculatore (calculate) and ours - "calculation". A bronze Roman abacus has survived, on whichcalculi moved in vertically cut grooves. At the bottom were placed pebbles for counting to five, and in the upper part there was a compartment for a pebble corresponding to five (Fig. 2).

The Chinese replaced pebbles with beads (or balls) strung on twigs, wires or ropes. The Chinese variety of abacus, Xuanpan, appeared, probably inV1st century AD e .; the modern type of this calculating device was created later, apparently in XII century (Fig. 3). Suanpai is a rectangular frame in which parallel to each other are stretched wire or rope 9 or more in number; perpendicular to this direction Xuanpan is partitioned off with a ruler into two unequal parts. In the large compartment ("earth"), 5 balls are strung on each wire, in the smaller (sky) - two; the first, as it were, correspond to five fingers of the hand, the second to two hands. The wires correspond to decimal places.

Japanese abacus-soroban (Fig. 3) - comes from the Chinese Xuanpan, which was introduced to Japan in XV-XVI centuries. Soroban is simpler than its predecessor, it has one ball less in its “sky” than that of Xuanpan.

Finally at the turn of XVI-XVii centuries, the Russian abacus appears.

4. The invention of logarithms.It is not easy for us, living in the era of widespread computing, to even imagine how difficult ordinary arithmetic operations were for people of the 16-17 centuries, especially with large numbers. It is clear what significance the invention of logarithms had, the first mention of which we meet in a letter from I. Kepler to the Tübingen professor of mathematics W. Schickard about the speech of John Napier. In 1614. he published the famous treatise Description of the Amazing Tables of Logarithms.

More logarithmic tables are coming soon. They simplified the calculations, but still this one remained quite laborious and tedious for those who had to do it on a daily basis. Therefore, following the invention of logarithms, attempts are made to mechanize logarithmic calculations.

5. Mechanical computers.Despite a fairly large number of inventions inXVIII at. to the beginningXIX at. the need for a simple calculating machine, easy to use and reliable in operation, was felt more and more sharply. Mechanical computers are characterized, first of all, by the fact that as soon as, in the process of calculations, ten units are accumulated in the lowest category, they are automatically, without the attention of the calculator, replaced by one unit of the highest category. Moreover, all mechanical machines can be conditionally divided into two classes: the simplest mechanical machines and adding machines.

The simplest mechanical machines include machines that are created mainly for addition and subtraction, although multiplication and division can be performed on them by repeating these actions. Adding machines are mechanical machines that are designed to perform four arithmetic operations.

M

ashina Shikarda. The first computing mechanical machine, in which the units accumulated in the process of performing actions, were automatically transferred to the highest category, was built in 1623 by V. Shikard.

The machine, according to the author, was intended to perform four arithmetic operations, but its mechanical part was adapted only for addition and subtraction: multiplication and division had to be performed using movable tables. Shikard's car was apparently built in one or two copies, which soon perished. Only the schemes of Schikard's car have come down to us. In the house-museum of I. Kepler, in his homeland in the city of Voile, a model of this car was made and exhibited according to these schemes.

Pascal's machine. The first mechanical computing machine that has come down to us is the summing machine of Blaise Pascal (Fig. 7), who built the first copy of the machine in 1641.

In total, he made more than 50 copies. They were six to eight-bit machines in design, generally no different from Schickard's summing machine, although Pascal was not familiar with Schickard's machine. Several copies of Pascal's car have survived to this day in various museums in Europe. Only addition and subtraction could be performed on Pascal's machine. Multiplication and division could only be replaced by repeated addition and subtraction.

Having built his machine, Pascal came to the conclusion that the human mind operates automatically and that some mental processes are not different from mechanical ones. He proved that it is possible to perform calculations (first of all, transfer tens to the highest category) mechanically. This was the main goal of Pascal when creating a computing machine.

Leibniz machine. Leibniz invented the first machine for performing four arithmetic operations, on which one could mechanically not only add and subtract, but also multiply and divide.

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1673 Leibniz presented his car to the Paris Academy. And in the future, Leibniz spent quite a long time designing and improving his computing machine.

The machine is based on stepped rollers - cylinders with teeth of different lengths. It is the stepped rollers that allow the multiplication and division to be performed. The second important invention of Leibniz was the division of the machine into movable and fixed parts, which made it possible to multiply multi-digit numbers by multi-digit ones. It was the prototype of a modern moving carriage. Leibniz's machine can be considered the first adding machine, although the name itself appeared much later.

AT the endXVII at. R.H. Wagner and the mechanic Levin worked on the improvement of Leibniz's machine, and after Leibniz's death, Teuber. In 1710 Burckhardt built a similar machine. Some changes in the design of the Leibniz machine were made by M. Knutzen (professor at the University of Keningsber) in 1783 and I. Müller, and many others.

6. The history of the development of modern computing has been going on since 1833, when an Englishman Charles Babbageimbued with the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a computer.

Babbage's desire to mechanize computation arose from the discontent he felt when faced with errors in mathematical tables used in various fields.

In 1822, Babbage built a trial model of a computing device, calling it the "Difference Engine": the model was based on a principle known in mathematics as the "finite difference method." This method allows you to calculate the values \u200b\u200bof polynomials using only the addition operation and not perform multiplication and division, which are much more difficult to automate. This provided for the use of a decimal number system (and not binary, as in modern computers).

However, the Difference Engine had rather limited capabilities. Babbage's reputation as a pioneer in the field of automatic computing was won mainly thanks to another, more advanced device, the Analytical Engine (the idea of \u200b\u200bwhich he came up with in 1834), which has surprisingly much in common with modern computers. It was assumed that it would be a computer for solving a wide range of tasks, capable of performing basic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. Provided for the presence in the machine "warehouse" and "mill" (in modern computers they correspond to memory and processor). Moreover, it was planned that it would work according to a program set using punched cards, and the results could be printed (and even presented in graphic form) or on punched cards. But Babbage could not complete the work on the creation of the Analytical Engine - it turned out to be too complicated for the technology of that time.

1876 \u200b\u200bEnglish engineer Alexander Bell invented phone.

1890 American engineer Herman Hollerith created a statistical tabulator, in which information printed on punched cards was deciphered by electric current. The tabulator was used to process the results of the US census.

1892 American engineer W. Burrows released the first commercial adder.

1897 English physicist J. Thomson designed cathode ray tube .

In 1901 the Italian physicist Guglielmo Marconi established radio communication between Europe and America.

Alan Turing in 1904-1906 designed an electronic diode and a triode. And in 1936, Alan Turing and, independently of him, E. Post put forward and developed abstract computing machine concept... They proved the fundamental possibility of solving any problem by automata, provided that it can be algorithmized.

In 1938 the German engineer Konrad Zuse built the first clean mechanical computer.

In 1938, the American mathematician and engineer Claude Shannon showed possibilityapplication of the apparatus of mathematical logic for the synthesis and analysis of relay-contact switching circuits .

In the same 1939, an American of Bulgarian origin John Atanasoff created a prototype of a computer based on binary elements.

In 1941 Konrad Zuse designed the first general purpose computer based on electromechanical elements. He worked with binary numbers and used floating point representation.

In 1944, under the leadership of the American mathematician Howard Aiken, an automatic computer "Mark-1" with programmed control was created. It was built on electro-mechanical relays, and the data processing program was entered from punched tape.

In 1945, John von Neumann, in his "Preliminary Report on the Edwack Machine," formulated basic principles of operation and components of modern computers.

In 1946 the Americans J. Eckert and J. Mauchly designed the first electronic digital computer "Eniak" (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). The car had 20 thousand vacuum tubes and 1.5 thousand relays. It ran a thousand times faster than the Mark 1, performing 300 multiplications or 5000 additions in one second.

In 1948 at the American firm Bell Laboratories physicists William Shockley, Walter Brattain and John Bardeen created transistor... For this achievement they were awarded the Nobel Prize.

In 1949 in England, under the leadership of Maurice Wilkes, the world's first computer with a program stored in memory was built EDSAC.

In 1957, the American company NCR created the first transistor computer.

In 1951, the first computer in continental Europe was built in Kiev MESM (small electronic calculating machine) with 600 electronic tubes. Creator S.A. Lebedev.

In 1951-1955. thanks to the activities of Russian scientists S.A. Lebedeva, M.V. Keldysh, M.A. Lavrentieva, I.S. Brooke, M.A. Kartseva, B.I. Rameeva, V.S. Antonova, A.N. Nevsky, B.I. Burkov and the teams led by them, the Soviet Union broke into the ranks of the leaders of computer technology, which made it possible in a short time to solve important scientific and technical problems of mastering nuclear energy and exploring space.

In 1952, under the leadership of S.A. Lebedev in Moscow built a computer BESM-1 (large electronic calculating machine) - at that time the most productive machine in Europe and one of the best in the world.

In 1955-1959. Russian scientists A.A. Lyapunov, S.S. Kamynin, E.Z. Lyubimsky, A.P. Ershov, L.N. Korolev, V.M. Kurochkin, M.R. Shura-Bura and others created "programming programs" - preimages of translators. V.V. Martynyuk created character coding system - a tool for accelerating the development and debugging of programs.

In 1955-1959. the foundation of the theory of programming (A.A.Lyapunov, Yu.I. Yanov, A.A.Markov, L.A. Kaluzhin) and numerical methods (V.M.Glushkov, A.A. Samarskii, A.N. Tikhonov ). The schemes of the mechanism of thinking and the processes of genetics, algorithms for the diagnosis of medical diseases are modeled (A.A. Lyapunov, B.V. Gnedenko, N.M. Amosov, A.G. Ivakhnenko, V.A.Kovalevsky, etc.).

In 1958, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments created first integrated circuit.

In 1959, under the leadership of S.A. Lebedev created a machine BESM-2 with a capacity of 10 thousand ops / s. Its application is associated with calculations of launches of space rockets and the world's first artificial earth satellites.

In 1959 a machine was created M-20, chief designer S.A. Lebedev. For its time, one of the fastest in the world (20 thousand ops / sec.). On this machine, most of the theoretical and applied problems related to the development of the most advanced areas of science and technology of that time were solved. Based on the M-20, a unique multiprocessor M-40 - the fastest computer of that time in the world (40 thousand oper./s.). The M-20 was replaced by semiconductor BESM-4 and M-220 (200 thousand operas / sec.).

In 1959, the first message about the language ALGOL, which has long become the standard in the field of programming languages.

In 1961, IBM Deutschland implemented connecting a computer to a telephone line usingmodem .

In 1964, the production of a family of machines began third generation - IBM / 360.

In 1965 J. Kemeny and T. Kurtz at Dortmund College (USA) developed a programming language BASIC.

In 1967, under the leadership of S.A. Lebedev organized a large-scale production of a masterpiece of domestic computer technology - a millionaire BESM-6, the fastest machine in the world. He was followed by "Elbrus" - a computer of a new type, with a capacity of 10 million ops / s.

In 1968, Intel was founded, which later became a recognized leader in the production of microprocessors and other computer integrated circuits.

In 1970, the Swiss Niklaus Wirth developed the language Pascal.

In 1971, Intel developed a microprocessor 4004 , consisting of 2250 transistors placed in a crystal no larger than a nail head.

In 1971, French scientist Alain Colmari developed a logical programming language Prologue (PROgramming in LOGic).

In 1972, Dennis Ritchie of Bell Laboratories developed the language Si.

In 1973 Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie created operating system UNIX.

In 1973, IBM (International Business Machines Corporation) designed first hard drive type "Winchester".

In 1974, Intel developed the first universal eight-bit 8080 microprocessor with 4500 transistors.

In 1974, Edward Roberts, a young US Air Force officer and electronic engineer, built a microcomputer based on the 8080 processor Altair, which was a huge commercial success, sold by mail order and widely used for home use.

In 1975, a young programmer Paul Allen and a Harvard student Bill Gates implemented the BASIC language for Altair. Subsequently, they founded a firm Microsoft (Microsoft), which is today the largest software manufacturer. The first piece of music played on a computer was the melody of The Beatles' "Fool on the hill". IBM started selling laser printers.

In 1976, students Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, setting up a workshop in the garage, implemented a computer Apple-1, laying the foundation for Apple Corporation.

In 1978, Intel released microprocessor 8086... Comodore launched the first dot matrix printers on the market.

In 1979, Intel released microprocessor 8088... SoftWare Arts has developed the first business software package VisiCalc (Visible Calculator) for personal computers.

In 1980, Japanese companies Sharp, Sanyo, Panasonic, Casio and the American company Tandy brought to the market the first pocket computer, possessing all the basic properties of large computers.

In 1981, IBM released the first personal computer IBM PC based on 8088 microprocessor. Microsoft is finishing work on MC-DOS. In August, an IBM-PC-computer based on the Intel-8088 processor, equipped with 64 KB of RAM and 40 KB of permanent memory, came to the people. The computer is equipped with a display and a 160 KB floppy disk drive. The cost of the computer was $ 3000.

In 1982, Intel released microprocessor 80286.

In 1983, Apple Computers built personal Computer "Lisa" - the first office computer controlled by a mouse. Hercules introduces the first black and white graphics card. Microsoft introduces the Multi-Tool Word for DOS and the $ 200 Microsoft Mouse. Floppy disks have become popular as standard storage media. Borland released the Turbo Pascal compiler, developed by Anders Hejlsberg.

Comodore launches the first portable computer with a color display (5 colors). Computer weight - 10 kg, price - $ 1600. IBM introduces the IBM PC XT computer. Equipped with a 10MB hard drive, a 360KB floppy drive and 768KB of RAM. The price of a computer is $ 5000. Installed on the computer a new version MS-DOS 2.0. The first RAM modules - SIMMs - appear.

In 1984 the first computer of the type Laptop (knee), in which the system unit is combined with the display and keyboard into a single unit. Sony and Phillips develop CD recording standard CD-ROM ... Apple Computer Corporation released the Macintosh, the first model of the later famous Macintosh family with a user-friendly operating system and advanced graphics capabilities far superior to those of standard IBM-compatible MS-DOS PCs at the time. These computers quickly gained millions of fans and became the computing platform for entire industries such as publishing and education.

Also in 1984, Apple introduced the first 1200 baud modem. The first workstations for the production and processing of 3D graphics appear on the market. Philips launches first CD-ROOM drive Hewlett-Packard launches first laser printer with a resolution of up to 300 dpi.

In 1985, Intel released microprocessor 80386... The first version of Microsoft Windows is released.

In 1986, Peter Norton creates the first version of the file manager Norton Commander. The first computer-generated animation with sound and effects is shown on the Amiga computer. The birth of multimedia technology.

In 1987 Microsoft introduced the MS-DOS 3.3 operating system and the Windows 2.0 graphical shell.

1988 Hewlett-packard launches the first DeskJet inkjet printer.

1989 saw the birth of the SuperVGA standard.

In 1989, the American firm Poquet Computers Corporation introduced new computer class Subnotebook - Pocket PC.

In 1990, the birth of the "world wide web" Internet. IBM presents new standard video card - XGA - as a replacement for VGA.

In 1991 Apple introduces the first monochrome handheld scanner. In addition, the first stereo music card is introduced, the 8-bit Sound Blaster Pro.

1992 Nec released the first double speed CD-ROOM drive. Intel introduces the 486DX2 / 50 processor with "doubled" clock speed.

1993 The first version of the new operating system appears Microsoft- windows NT. Intel is introducing a new PCI bus and slot standard. The first next generation processor from Intel is a 32-bit Pentium. Operating frequency - from 60 MHz, speed from 100 million operations per second. Amstrad launches the first notebook-sized mini-computer.

1994 Launch of the Power Mac series apple Computers - Power PC... Iomega introduces ZIP and JAZ disks and drives, an alternative to the existing 1.44MB floppy disks, and announces Microsoft windows 95 at the end of the year.

In 1995 the standard for new media on laser discs - DVD - was announced. 3dfx launches the Voodoo chipset, which is the basis for the first 3D graphics accelerators for home PCs. The first “virtual reality” glasses and helmets for home PCs. "Clash of the titans" of operating systems - OS / 2 against Windows 95, which appeared in August. Microsoft wins and IBM is quietly leaving the market for "home" OS. Microsoft presents Microsoft Office 95 and browser Internet Explorer.

1996 the birth of the USB bus. Beginning of production of mass liquid crystal monitors for “large” home computers.

In 1997, a new processor from Intel appeared - Intel Pentium 2; first dVD drives; new AGP graphics port.

In 1998 Intel released Celeron-Pentium 2 processors for home computers with stripped-down L2 cache. The “three-dimensional revolution” has begun: a dozen new models of three-dimensional accelerators, integrated into ordinary video cards, appear on the market. The production of video cards without 3D accelerators was discontinued within a year. Microsoft is releasing Windows 98, the latest operating system for home PCs of this millennium.

In 1999 Intel released the Pentium 3 processors with a new set of additional instructions for processing multimedia. IBM releases latest version DOS - PC DOS 2000. Microsoft releases Office 2000 and an updated version of Windows 98 Second Edition.

In 2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000 and Windows Me. Launched UDDI and ebXML projects to integrate e-business on a global scale.

In 2001, Linux releases version 2.4 of the Linux kernel. Microsoft releases Windows XP. Apple releases Mac OS X 10.0, Cheetah, and Mac OS X 10.1, Puma. Flexible OLED-based displays have appeared. The concept of a distributed network of miniature sensors has been developed: "smart dust", that is, a network of small wireless microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and additional devices that can interact with each other and receive data on the state of the external environment (for example, temperature, light, pressure.

In 2002, version 1 of the free office suite OpenOffice.org was released. Microsoft is launching Windows Server 2003; Apple is launching an operating system mac system OS X 10.2 Jaguar. NEC has developed Earth Simulator for the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency - the fastest supercomputer from 2002 to 2004. A projection keyboard is a kind of virtual keyboard that is an optical projection of the keyboard onto a surface on which the virtual keys are touched. The keyboard tracks finger movements and translates them into keystrokes. Most of the systems developed can also function as a virtual mouse and even as a virtual musical piano keyboard. The commercially available P-ISM system, which combines a projection keyboard with a small video projector, is a portable computer the size of a pen

In 2003, Apple released the Power Mac G5 PC and Mac OS X 10.3 Panther. The Linux company launches version 2.6 of the Linux kernel, the latest stable release at present. Stereoscopic 3D display developed: A.C.T. Kern. A brain interface was developed (without implantation of electrodes).

In 2004, version 1.0 of the free browser is released Mozilla Firefox... A field-effect transistor based on carbon nanotube has been created: Infineon.

In 2005, version 2 of the free office suite OpenOffice.org was released. It became the first office suite based on the OpenDocument format. Apple is organizing the release of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger; announces the transition from the PowerPC architecture to the x86 architecture. Fuel cell laptops appeared.

In 2006 Microsoft releases microsoft browser Internet Explorer 7.0, renamed Windows Internet Explorer.Mozilla for this occasion, is organizing the release of version 2.0 of the Mozilla Firefox browser. Open format documents for office applications OpenDocument becomes an ISO standard. A terahertz transistor has been developed. A carbon nanotube emission display has been developed.

In 2007 Microsoft launches Windows Vista. Apple launches Mac OS X 10.5 "Leopard". Supercomputer Blue Gene / P with a productivity of 1 petaflops (quadrillion operations per second). There are computer systems for face recognition that surpass human capabilities

In 2008, Apple launches the ultraportable MacBook Air and the Apple TV digital network media player. Bill Gates steps down as chairman of the board of directors of Microsoft Corporation. Version 3.0 of the Mozilla Firefox browser is released. Release of version 3.0 of the open source office suite OpenOffice.org. The IBM Roadrunner supercomputer has surpassed 1 petaflop (quadrillion operations per second) performance to become the world's fastest computer.

In 2009, Oracle buys Sun Microsystems. Microsoft releases Windows 7, Server and Storage Virtualization. Supercomputer Cray XT5 (Jaguar) has become the world's most productive computer system.

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Attention! The slide preview is used for informational purposes only and may not represent all the presentation options. If you are interested this workplease download the full version.

The purpose of the lesson:

1. to acquaint with the history of the development of computing technology, with devices that are the predecessors of computers and their inventors
2. to give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe connection between the development of computers and the development of human society,
3. to acquaint with the main features of computers of different generations.
4. Development of cognitive interest, the ability to use additional literature

Lesson type:learning new material

View:lesson-lecture

Didactic software: PC, presentation slides showing the main devices, portraits of inventors and scientists.

Lesson plan:

1. Organizing time
2. Updating new knowledge
3. Prehistory of computers
4. Computer generations (computers)
5. The future of computers
6. Consolidation of new knowledge
7. Lesson summary
8. Homework

1. Organizational moment

Stage task: Prepare students for classroom work. (Check the readiness of the class for the lesson, the availability of school supplies, attendance)

2. Updating new knowledge

Stage task: Preparing students for the active assimilation of new knowledge, to ensure motivation and acceptance by students of the goal of educational and cognitive activities. Setting the goals of the lesson.

Hello! What technical inventions do you think has particularly changed the way humans work?

(Students express their opinions on this issue, if necessary, the teacher corrects them)

- You are right, indeed, basic technical devicethat influenced human labor is the invention of computers - electronic computers. Today in the lesson, we will find out what computing devices preceded the emergence of computers, how computers themselves changed, the sequence of the formation of a computer, when a machine intended simply for counting became a complex technical device. The topic of our lesson: “The history of computing. Generations of computers ". The purpose of our lesson : to get acquainted with the history of the development of computer technology, with devices that are the predecessors of computers and their inventors, get acquainted with the main features of computers of different generations.

In the lesson we will work with the help of a multimedia presentation, consisting of 4 sections "Prehistory of computers", "Generations of computers", "Gallery of scientists", "Computer dictionary". Each section has a subsection "Test yourself" - this is a test in which you will immediately find out the result.

3. Prehistory of computers

To draw the attention of students that a computer is an electronic computer, another name for "computer" or "computer" comes from the English verb "compute" - to calculate, therefore the word "computer" can be translated as "calculator". That is, both in the word computer and in the word computer, the main meaning is computation. Although you and I know well that modern computers allow not only calculating, but also creating and processing texts, pictures, video, sound. Let's look at history ...

(in parallel we draw up the table "Prehistory of computers" in a notebook)

"Prehistory of computers"

Ancient man mastered counting earlier than writing. The man chose his fingers as the first assistant in counting. It was the presence of ten fingers that formed the basis of the decimal number system. Different countries speak and write in different languages, but count the same. In the 5th century BC. the Greeks and Egyptians used for counting - ABAK - a device similar to Russian abacus.

Abacus is a Greek word and is translated as counting board. The idea of \u200b\u200bits device lies in the presence of a special computational field, where the counting elements are moved according to certain rules. Indeed, originally the abacus was a board covered with dust or sand. On it you could draw lines and shift pebbles. In ancient Greece, the abacus was used primarily to carry out cash payments. Large monetary units were counted on the left side, and small change on the right. The account was carried out in a binary-pentary number system. On such a board, it was easy to add and subtract, adding or removing pebbles and transferring them from category to category.

Having come to Ancient Rome, the abacus changed outwardly. The Romans began to make it from bronze, ivory or colored glass. There were two rows of slots on the board, along which the bones could be moved. The abacus turned into a real calculating device, allowing even fractions to be represented, and was much more convenient than the Greek one. The Romans called this device calculare - "pebbles". From here came the Latin verb calculare - "to calculate", and from it the Russian word "calculator".

After the fall of the Roman Empire, there was a decline in science and culture and the abacus was closed for some time. It was revived and spread throughout Europe only in the 10th century. The abacus was used by merchants, money changers, artisans. Even six centuries later, the abacus remained an essential tool for performing calculations.

Naturally, during such a long period of time, the abacus changed its appearance and in XLL-XLLLvv. it took the form of so-called counting on the lines and between them. This form of account in some European countries remained until the end of XVLLLв. and only then finally gave way to calculations on paper.

In China, the abacus has been known since the LV century BC. Counting sticks were laid out on a special board. Gradually they were replaced by multi-colored chips, and in the 5th century, Chinese abacus appeared - suan-pan. They were a frame with two rows of bones strung on twigs. There were seven of them on each twig. From China, Suan-pan came to Japan. It happened in the XVL century and the device was named "soroban".

In Russia, abacus appeared at the same time as in Japan. But Russian abacus was invented independently, which is proved by the following factors. First, Russian abacus is very different from Chinese. Secondly, this invention has its own history.

In Russia, "bone counting" was widespread. It was close to the European count on the lines, but the scribes used fruit pits instead of tokens. In the XVL, the board account, the first variant of Russian accounts, arose. Such accounts are now kept in the Historical Museum in Moscow.

Abacus has been in use in Russia for almost 300 years and has only been replaced by cheap pocket calculators.

The world's first automatic device that could perform addition was created on the basis of a mechanical watch, and it was developed in 1623 by Wilhelm Schickard, professor of the Department of Oriental Languages \u200b\u200bat a university in Germany. But Blaise Pascal, Godfried Leibniz and Charles Babbage undoubtedly made an invaluable contribution to the development of devices that help perform calculations.

In 1642, one of the greatest scientists in the history of mankind - the French mathematician, physicist, philosopher and theologian Blaise Pascal invented and manufactured a mechanical device for adding and subtracting numbers - the ARITHMOMETER. ? What material do you think was made of the first-ever adding machine? (wood).

The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe design of the future machine was formed - automatic transfer of the discharge. "Each wheel ... of a certain digit, making a movement of ten arithmetic digits, makes the next one move only one digit" - this invention formula asserted the priority of Blaise Pascal in the invention and secured to him the right to manufacture and sell cars.

Pascal's machine carried out the addition of numbers on special disks - wheels. The decimal digits of a five-digit number were set by turning the discs on which numeric divisions were applied. The result was read in the windows. The discs had one elongated tooth to allow for carry over to the next digit.

The initial numbers were set by turning the dialing wheels, the rotation of the knob set in motion various gears and rollers, as a result, special wheels with numbers showed the result of addition or subtraction.

Pascal was one of the greatest geniuses of humanity. He was a mathematician, physicist, mechanic, inventor, writer. Theorems of mathematics and laws of physics bear his name. In physics, there is a Pascal unit for measuring pressure. In computer science, one of the most popular programming languages \u200b\u200bbears his name.

In 1673, the German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz invented and manufactured an adding machine that could not only add and subtract numbers, but also multiply and divide. The scarcity and primitiveness of the first computing devices did not prevent Pascal and Leibniz from expressing a number of interesting ideas about the role of computing technology in the future. Leibniz wrote about machines that would work not only with numbers, but also with words, concepts, formulas, and could perform logical operations. This idea seemed absurd to most of Leibniz's contemporaries. In the 18th century, Leibniz's views were ridiculed by the great English satirist J. Swift, the author of the famous novel Gulliver's Travels.

Only in the 20th century did the significance of the ideas of Pascal and Leibniz become clear.

Along with devices for computing, mechanisms for AUTOMATIC OPERATION ACCORDING TO a given PROGRAM also developed (jukeboxes, chiming clocks, Jacquard looms).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the English mathematician Charles Babbage, who compiled tables for navigation, developed a DRAFT computing "analytical" machine, which was based on the PRINCIPLE OF PROGRAM CONTROL (PPM). Babbage's innovative thought was taken up and developed by his student Ada Lovelace, daughter of the poet George Byron - who became the world's first programmer. However, the practical implementation of the Babbage project was impossible due to insufficient development of industry and technology.

The main elements of the Babbage machine inherent in a modern computer:

1. Warehouse - the device where the original numbers and intermediate results are stored. In modern computers, this is memory.
2. Factory is an arithmetic device in which operations on numbers taken from the Warehouse are carried out. AT modern computer it is a Processor.
3. Input blocks of initial data - input device.
4. Print results - output device.

The architecture of the machine practically corresponds to the architecture of modern computers, and the commands executed by the analytical engine basically include all the commands of the processor.

An interesting historical fact is that the first program for the analytical engine was written by Ada Augusta Lovelace, the daughter of the great English poet George Byron. It was Babbage who infected her with the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a computing machine.

The idea of \u200b\u200bprogramming mechanical devices using a punched card was first implemented in 1804 in a loom. For the first time they were used by designers of weaving looms. The London weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard succeeded in this business. In 1801 he created an automatic weaving machine controlled by punch cards.

The thread rose or fell with each shuttle stroke, depending on whether there is a hole or not. The transverse thread could bypass each longitudinal of that I and the other side, depending on the program on the punch card, thereby creating an intricate pattern of intertwined threads. This kind of weaving is called "jacquard" and is considered one of the most complex and intricate weaves. This programmed loom was the first mass-produced industrial device and is considered one of the most advanced machines ever made by man.

The idea of \u200b\u200brecording the program on a punched card came to mind also of the first programmer, Ada Augusta Lovelace. It was she who proposed the use of punched cards in Babbage's analytical engine. In particular, in one of her letters she wrote: "The analytical machine weaves algebraic patterns in the same way as the loom reproduces colors and leaves."

Herman Hollerith also used punched cards in his machine to record and process information. Punch cards were also used in the first generation computers.

Until the 40s of the twentieth century computer Engineering represented by adding machines, which from mechanical became electrical, where electromagnetic relays spent several seconds multiplying numbers, which worked exactly on the same principles as Pascal's and Leibniz's adding machines. In addition, they were very unreliable and often broke. It is interesting that once the cause of the breakdown of an electric adding machine was a moth stuck in a relay, in English "moth, beetle" - bug, hence the concept of "beetle" as a malfunction in a computer.

Herman Hollerith was born on February 29, 1860 in the American city of Buffalo in a family of German emigrants. Herman was an easy learner in mathematics and science, and at the age of 15 he entered the Mining School at Columbia University. A professor of the same university drew attention to the talented young man and invited him after graduation to the national census bureau headed by him. The population census was carried out every ten years. The population grew steadily, and its population in the United States by that time was about 50 million people. It was almost impossible to fill out a card for each person manually, and then calculate and process the results. This process dragged on for several years, almost until the next census. It was necessary to find a way out of this situation. Herman Hollerith came up with the idea of \u200b\u200bmechanizing this process by Dr. John Billings, who headed the department of summary data. He suggested using punched cards to record information. Hollerith named his car tabulator and in 1887 year he was tested in Baltimore. The results were positive and the experiment was repeated in St. Louis. The gain in time was almost tenfold. The US government immediately entered into a contract with Hollerith for the supply of tabulators, and already in 1890 the population census was carried out using machines. The results were processed in less than two years and saved $ 5 million. Hollerith's system not only provided high speed, but also made it possible to compare statistics on the most different parameters... Hollerith has developed a handy keyboard puncher that can punch about 100 holes per minute on multiple cards simultaneously, automating the feeding and sorting of punched cards. Sorting was carried out by a device in the form of a set of boxes with lids. Punch cards moved along a kind of conveyor. On one side of the card were the spring-loaded reading pins, on the other, a reservoir of mercury. When the pin fell into the hole on the punch card, then thanks to the mercury on the other side, it closed electrical circuit... The lid of the corresponding box opened and a punch card got there. The tabulator was used for population census in several countries.

In 1896, the Herm Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company (TMC) and his machines were used everywhere - in large industrial plants and in ordinary firms. And in 1900, the tabulator was used for the population census. renames the firm to IBM (International Business Machines).

4. Generations of computers (computers)

(in parallel, we draw up entries in a notebook and a table "Generations of computers (computers)")

I computer generation:In the 30s of the 20th century, there was a breakthrough in the development of physics, a radical revolution. Computing machines were no longer used wheels, rollers and relays, but vacuum electronic tubes. The transition from electromechanical elements to electronic ones immediately increased the speed of machines hundreds of times. The first operating computer was built in the United States in 1945 at the University of Pennsylvania by scientists Eckert and Mauchly and was called ENIAC. This machine was built by order of the US Department of Defense for air defense systems, for control automation. To correctly calculate the trajectory and speed of the projectile to hit an air target, it was necessary to solve a system of 6 differential equations. This problem was to be solved by the first computer. The first computer occupied two floors of one building, weighed 30 tons and consisted of tens of thousands of electronic tubes, which were connected by wires, the total length of which was 10 thousand km. When the ENIAC computer was working, the electricity in the town went out, so much electricity was consumed by this machine, the electronic tubes quickly overheated and failed. A whole group of students did nothing but search for and replace burned-out lamps.

In the USSR, the founder of computer technology was Sergey Alekseevich Lebedev, who created MESM (small calculating machine) in 1951 (Kiev) and BESM (high-speed ESM) - 1952, Moscow.

II generation:In 1948, the US scientist Walter Brightten invented the TRANSISTOR, a semiconductor device that replaced radio tubes. The transistor was much smaller than a radio tube, was more reliable and consumed much less electricity, it replaced 40 vacuum tubes alone! Computing machines became smaller in size and much cheaper, their performance reached several hundred operations per second. Now computers were the size of a refrigerator, they could be purchased and used by scientific and technical institutes. At that time, the USSR kept up with the times and produced a world-class computer BESM-6.

III generation:The second half of the 20th century is characterized by the rapid development of science and technology, especially the physics of semiconductors, and since 1964 transistors began to be placed on microcircuits made on the surfaces of crystals. This made it possible to overcome the millionth barrier in performance.

IV generation:Since 1980, scientists have learned to place several integrated circuits on one crystal, the development of microelectronics has led to the creation of microprocessors. The IC crystal is smaller and thinner than the contact lens. The speed of modern computers is hundreds of millions of operations per second.

In 1977, the first PC (personal computer) from Apple Macintosh appeared. Since 1981, IBM (International Business Machine) has become the leader in the production of PCs; this company has been operating in the US market since the 19th century and produced various devices for offices - abacus, pen adding machines, etc. and has established itself as a reliable firm trusted by most business people in the United States. But this is not only why IBM PCs were so much more popular than Apple Macintosh PCs. Apple Macintosh PCs were a "black box" for the user - he could not disassemble upgrade PCs, connect new devices to PCs, and IBM PCs were open to the user and thus allowed to build PCs like a children's designer, so most users chose IBM PCs. Although we with the word "computer" represent exactly the PC, but there are problems that even modern PCs cannot solve, with which only supercomputers can handle, the speed of which is calculated in billions of operations per second.

Lebedev's scientific school in its results successfully competed with the leading US firm IBM. Among the scientists of the world, Lebedev's contemporaries, there is no person who, like him, would have such a powerful creative potential to cover the period from the creation of the first vacuum tube computers to the ultra-fast supercomputer with his scientific activities. When the American scientist Norbert Wiener, who is called the "first cyber prophet", came to the USSR in 1960, he noted "They are quite a bit behind us in equipment, but far ahead of us in the THEORY of automation." Unfortunately, in the 60s, the science of cybernetics was persecuted as a "bourgeois pseudoscience", cybernetic scientists were imprisoned, which is why Soviet electronics began to lag significantly behind foreign ones. Although it was becoming impossible to create new computers, no one could forbid scientists to think. Therefore, up to now, our Russian scientists are ahead of the world scientific thought in the field of automation theory.

For the development of computer programs, various programming languages \u200b\u200b(algorithmic languages) were created. FORTRAN FORTRAN - FORmula TRANslated - the first language, created in 1956 by J. Backus. In 1961 BASIC appeared (Beginners All-purpose Simbolic Instartion Code - multipurpose language of symbolic instructions for beginners) T. Kurtz, J. Kemeny. In 1971, a professor at the University of Zurich Nicholas Wirth created the Pascal language Pascal, which he named after the scientist Blaise Pascal. Other languages \u200b\u200bwere also created: Ada, Algol, Cobol, C, Prolog, Fred, Logo, Lisp, etc. But until now the most popular programming language is Pascal, many later languages \u200b\u200btook from Pascal the basic commands and principles of building a program, for example C, C + and system delphi programming, even BASIC, having changed, borrowed from Pascal its structuredness and universality. In the 11th grade, we will study the Pascal language and learn how to create programs for solving problems with formulas, for word processing, learn to draw and create moving pictures.

Supercomputers

5. The future of computers

• The benefits of artificial intelligence (AI):
• Molecular computers
• Biocomputers
• Optical computers
• Quantum computers

6. Consolidation of new knowledge

Consolidation of new material is possible with the help of a test in a multimedia presentation for the lesson: section "Test yourself" in each part of the presentation: "Prehistory of computers", "Generations of computers", "Gallery of scientists".

Checking knowledge on this topic is possible using the tests "History of Computing" ( Attachment 1) in 4 variants and the test about scientists "Informatics in faces" ( Appendix 2)

7. Summing up the lesson

Checking filled tables ( Appendix 3)

8. Homework

• lecture in a notebook on presentation, tables "Prehistory of computers", "Generations of computers"
• prepare a message about the 5th generation of computers (the future of computers)